Did you know that a string of dolphins can communicate with each other using a unique set of clicks and whistles, forming complex social structures and relationships? These intelligent marine mammals not only captivate our hearts with their playful antics but also play a crucial role in the health of coastal ecosystems. However, as human activities increasingly encroach on their natural habitats, the survival of these majestic creatures is at risk. The challenges faced by dolphin populations in coastal areas are more pressing than ever, and understanding these issues is vital for anyone who cares about marine life and the delicate balance of our oceans.
In this article, we will dive deep into the conservation efforts aimed at protecting the string of dolphins and the formidable obstacles that threaten their existence. From habitat degradation to pollution, we will explore the multifaceted challenges that these animals face daily. But it’s not all doom and gloom—there are practical solutions and inspiring success stories that highlight the collective power of communities and organizations dedicated to dolphin conservation. Join us as we uncover valuable insights and actionable tips that can empower you to make a difference in the lives of these enchanting beings and their coastal habitats.
Importance of Dolphins in New Zealand’s Coastal Ecosystem
The Ecological Role of Dolphins
Dolphins play a crucial role in maintaining the health and balance of marine ecosystems, particularly in the coastal waters of New Zealand. As apex predators, they occupy a key position in the marine food web, influencing the population dynamics of various species. By preying on fish and cephalopods, dolphins help regulate the populations of these species, ensuring that no single group dominates the ecosystem. This predatory behavior promotes biodiversity, which is essential for the resilience of marine habitats.
New Zealand is home to several dolphin species, including the bottlenose dolphin and the endangered Hector’s dolphin. The bottlenose dolphin is known for its intelligence and adaptability, often found in various coastal environments, from harbors to open waters. In contrast, Hector’s dolphins are smaller and more specialized, primarily inhabiting the shallow waters of the South Island’s coasts. Their limited range makes them particularly vulnerable to environmental changes and human activities.
The presence of a healthy population of dolphins is an indicator of a thriving marine ecosystem. When dolphin populations decline, it can signal underlying issues such as overfishing, habitat degradation, or pollution. Protecting these marine mammals is not just about safeguarding their existence; it is also about preserving the intricate balance of marine life that they help maintain. Dolphins, with their complex social structures and communication abilities, serve as a bridge to understanding the broader marine environment. Their interactions with other species and their response to environmental changes provide valuable insights into the health of marine ecosystems.
Cultural Significance of Dolphins in Māori Culture
Dolphins hold a special place in Māori culture, symbolizing strength, grace, and intelligence. In Māori mythology, dolphins are often seen as guardians of the sea, embodying the spirit of the ocean. They are frequently referenced in traditional stories and legends, where they are depicted as helpful beings guiding fishermen to abundant waters or rescuing lost souls at sea. These narratives illustrate the deep connection between the Māori people and the marine environment, highlighting the respect and reverence for dolphins as vital members of the ecosystem.
Māori beliefs also emphasize the interconnectedness of all living things, and dolphins are viewed as integral to the balance of nature. The concept of “kaitiakitanga,” or guardianship, underpins Māori environmental philosophy, advocating for the protection of natural resources, including marine life. This cultural significance has fostered a strong commitment to dolphin conservation among Māori communities, who actively engage in efforts to protect these animals and their habitats.
In contemporary times, the cultural importance of dolphins continues to influence conservation initiatives in New Zealand. Collaborative efforts between Māori and conservation organizations often incorporate traditional knowledge and practices, enhancing the effectiveness of marine conservation strategies. By integrating cultural values with scientific approaches, these initiatives aim to create a holistic framework for dolphin protection that respects both the environment and the people who depend on it.
Economic Impact of Dolphin Tourism
Dolphin tourism has emerged as a significant contributor to New Zealand’s economy, attracting visitors from around the world who seek wildlife experiences that include encounters with these charismatic marine mammals. The allure of seeing dolphins in their natural habitat has led to the growth of various eco-tourism ventures, such as dolphin-watching tours, swimming with dolphins, and marine wildlife expeditions. These activities not only provide unforgettable experiences for tourists but also generate substantial revenue for local communities.
Statistics indicate that dolphin tourism contributes millions of dollars to New Zealand’s economy annually. In regions like the Bay of Islands and Kaikoura, where dolphin populations are abundant, the tourism industry has flourished, creating jobs and supporting local businesses. This economic incentive has encouraged communities to prioritize dolphin conservation, recognizing that healthy dolphin populations are essential for sustaining tourism revenue.
However, the growth of dolphin tourism also presents challenges. Increased boat traffic and human interaction can disrupt dolphin behavior and habitat. It is crucial that tourism operators adhere to responsible practices that minimize disturbance to dolphin populations. Implementing guidelines and regulations, such as maintaining safe distances from dolphins and limiting the number of boats in sensitive areas, is essential for ensuring the long-term sustainability of dolphin tourism.
Moreover, educating tourists about dolphin behavior and the importance of conservation can enhance their wildlife experiences while fostering a sense of responsibility towards marine life. By promoting ethical tourism practices, New Zealand can balance economic benefits with the need to protect its coastal treasures, ensuring that future generations can continue to enjoy the beauty and wonder of dolphins in their natural environment.
In conclusion, dolphins are not only vital ecological players in New Zealand’s coastal ecosystems but also hold deep cultural significance and economic value. Their role as apex predators helps maintain marine biodiversity, while their presence enriches Māori culture and supports the thriving dolphin tourism industry. As we continue to explore conservation efforts and the challenges faced by dolphin populations, it becomes increasingly clear that protecting these magnificent creatures is essential for the health of our oceans and the well-being of our communities.
Current Conservation Efforts for Dolphin Populations
Legislation and Policies
New Zealand has long recognized the importance of dolphins in its marine ecosystems, leading to the establishment of various legislative frameworks aimed at their protection. The Marine Mammals Protection Act of 1978 is a cornerstone of dolphin conservation in New Zealand. This act was implemented to protect all marine mammals, including the diverse species of dolphins found in the coastal waters of the country. Under this legislation, it is illegal to hunt or harm dolphins, and strict guidelines are enforced to minimize human interference with their natural behaviors.
In recent years, updates to this legislation have emerged in response to the evolving challenges faced by dolphin populations. For example, the introduction of the Hector’s Dolphin Threat Management Plan in 2019 specifically addresses the unique vulnerabilities of this species. This plan includes measures such as designated marine protected areas, restrictions on fishing practices in critical habitats, and ongoing research initiatives to monitor dolphin populations. These policies signify a proactive approach to conservation, ensuring that the needs of the string of dolphins in New Zealand’s waters are met while balancing the interests of local communities and industries.
Moreover, local councils are increasingly incorporating dolphin conservation into regional planning processes. By integrating dolphin protection measures into broader environmental policies, New Zealand aims to create a more sustainable approach to coastal development. These efforts highlight the importance of legislative frameworks in safeguarding marine life while promoting responsible economic development in coastal areas.
Key Organizations and Initiatives
Several organizations play a pivotal role in the conservation of dolphin populations in New Zealand. The Department of Conservation (DOC) is at the forefront of these efforts, implementing policies and programs designed to protect marine mammals. DOC conducts regular monitoring of dolphin populations, assesses the health of marine ecosystems, and engages in public education campaigns to raise awareness about the plight of dolphins.
In addition to DOC, organizations like the Dolphin Discovery Centre are crucial in fostering community engagement and promoting conservation initiatives. The Dolphin Discovery Centre offers educational programs that focus on the importance of dolphins in marine ecosystems and encourages responsible wildlife experiences. Through workshops and guided tours, visitors learn about the challenges faced by dolphin populations and the actions they can take to support conservation efforts.
One notable initiative is the “Save the Hector’s Dolphin” campaign, which aims to raise awareness about the critically endangered Hector’s dolphin. This campaign has successfully garnered public support and has led to increased funding for research and conservation projects. The efforts of these organizations, combined with community involvement, have resulted in significant strides toward protecting the string of dolphins that inhabit New Zealand’s coastal waters.
Community Involvement and Education
Community involvement is essential for the success of dolphin conservation initiatives. Local communities, schools, and organizations across New Zealand are actively engaging in efforts to protect dolphin populations. Educational programs targeting school-aged children are particularly effective in fostering a sense of stewardship toward marine life. These programs often include hands-on activities, such as beach clean-ups and marine life monitoring, which help instill a deeper understanding of the challenges faced by dolphins.
For example, the “Adopt a Dolphin” program encourages individuals and families to support specific dolphin conservation projects financially. Participants receive updates on their adopted dolphin and learn about the ongoing research efforts aimed at protecting these magnificent creatures. Such initiatives not only provide critical funding for conservation but also create a personal connection between the community and the dolphins, fostering a sense of responsibility toward their preservation.
Moreover, local events such as “Dolphin Day” celebrations offer opportunities for community members to come together and learn more about dolphin conservation. These events often feature guest speakers, interactive exhibits, and activities designed to educate attendees about the importance of protecting dolphin habitats. By involving the community in conservation efforts, New Zealand is building a strong foundation for the protection of its coastal treasures.
The integration of community-led initiatives with formal conservation efforts creates a comprehensive approach to dolphin protection. By empowering local residents to take an active role in conservation, New Zealand is not only enhancing the effectiveness of its initiatives but also ensuring that the cultural significance of dolphins is honored and preserved for future generations.
Challenges and Ongoing Efforts
Despite the robust conservation efforts in place, dolphin populations in New Zealand still face significant challenges. Habitat degradation, primarily due to coastal development and pollution, poses a serious threat to the survival of these marine mammals. As urban areas expand and industries encroach upon coastal ecosystems, the natural habitats of dolphins are increasingly compromised. This habitat loss disrupts their feeding and breeding grounds, making it more difficult for dolphin populations to thrive.
Furthermore, fishing practices continue to impact dolphin populations, particularly through bycatch. Hector’s dolphins, which are already critically endangered, are especially vulnerable to becoming entangled in fishing nets. The implementation of stricter fishing regulations and the promotion of sustainable fishing practices are essential to mitigate this threat. Conservation organizations are actively working with local fishermen to develop methods that minimize bycatch while allowing for sustainable fishing practices.
Climate change also presents a significant challenge to dolphin conservation. As ocean temperatures rise and marine ecosystems shift, the availability of prey species for dolphins may be affected. Changes in food availability can lead to altered behavior and migration patterns among dolphin populations, further complicating conservation efforts. Continued research into the impacts of climate change on marine life is critical for developing adaptive management strategies that can address these emerging threats.
In conclusion, the current conservation efforts for dolphin populations in New Zealand are multifaceted and involve a combination of legislative measures, organizational initiatives, and community engagement. While challenges remain, the commitment of various stakeholders to protect these incredible marine mammals is evident. Through collaboration and continued investment in conservation, New Zealand can ensure that its string of dolphins continues to thrive in its coastal waters. As awareness grows and community involvement increases, there is hope for a sustainable future for dolphin populations in New Zealand.
Challenges Faced by Dolphin Populations
Habitat Loss and Degradation
Dolphins are highly intelligent marine mammals that depend on healthy coastal ecosystems for their survival. However, habitat loss and degradation pose significant threats to their populations in New Zealand. The rapid expansion of coastal development, including urbanization, tourism infrastructure, and industrial activities, has led to the destruction of essential habitats. These developments often result in the loss of critical areas where dolphins feed, breed, and socialize.
Pollution is another pressing issue that contributes to habitat degradation. Nutrient runoff from agricultural activities, sewage discharge, and industrial waste can lead to harmful algal blooms, which negatively impact the quality of water and the health of marine ecosystems. Dolphins rely on clean waters to hunt for their prey, such as fish and squid. When these food sources are compromised, the entire marine food web is affected, leading to a decline in dolphin populations.
The decline of coastal marine environments is alarming. Studies show that over the past few decades, many coastal areas in New Zealand have experienced significant ecological changes. For instance, the degradation of seagrass beds and coral reefs, which serve as vital habitats for numerous marine species, has been documented. The loss of these habitats not only affects dolphins but also threatens other marine wildlife, leading to a ripple effect throughout the ecosystem.
To combat habitat loss, various conservation initiatives are being implemented. These include the establishment of marine protected areas (MPAs) where human activities are restricted to minimize environmental impact. MPAs have proven effective in helping to restore marine ecosystems, allowing dolphin populations to thrive in safer, healthier environments. However, the challenge remains to ensure that these areas are adequately enforced and respected by all stakeholders.
Fishing Practices and Bycatch
Fishing practices pose a significant threat to dolphin populations, particularly for species such as Hector’s dolphins, which are classified as endangered. Bycatch, the unintentional capture of non-target species during fishing operations, is a critical issue affecting dolphins in New Zealand’s coastal waters. Many fishing methods, such as gillnets and trawl nets, can entangle dolphins, leading to injury or death.
Statistics reveal the severity of the bycatch problem. Research indicates that hundreds of Hector’s dolphins are accidentally caught in fishing gear each year, significantly impacting their already dwindling population. The situation is exacerbated by the fact that these dolphins have a low reproductive rate, making recovery from such losses extremely challenging. The combination of bycatch and habitat degradation creates a precarious situation for these marine mammals.
Efforts to address bycatch include the implementation of regulations aimed at reducing dolphin entanglement. For instance, there are restrictions on the use of gillnets in certain areas known to be frequented by dolphins. Additionally, the development of alternative fishing practices and gear designed to minimize bycatch has gained traction among some fishing communities. Engaging with local fishermen to raise awareness about the importance of dolphin conservation is crucial for the success of these initiatives.
Community involvement plays a vital role in addressing the challenges posed by fishing practices. Educational programs aimed at informing fishermen about the ecological significance of dolphins and the impact of bycatch can foster a culture of conservation. By promoting sustainable fishing practices, the fishing community can become allies in the effort to protect dolphin populations.
Climate Change and Its Effects
Climate change represents a looming threat to dolphin populations, as it alters the environmental conditions essential for their survival. Rising sea temperatures, ocean acidification, and changing weather patterns can significantly impact the habitats and food sources that dolphins rely on. As the climate continues to change, these marine mammals may be forced to adapt to new conditions or migrate to more suitable habitats, which can lead to further challenges.
One of the most concerning effects of climate change is the alteration of dolphin habitats. Warmer ocean temperatures can lead to shifts in the distribution of prey species, making it more difficult for dolphins to find food. For instance, changes in the abundance and location of fish populations can force dolphins to travel greater distances to hunt, which can increase their energy expenditure and stress levels.
Additionally, climate change can exacerbate existing threats such as habitat degradation and pollution. Increased rainfall and flooding can lead to higher levels of runoff, introducing more pollutants into coastal waters. As a result, the health of marine ecosystems may decline further, putting additional pressure on dolphin populations.
The observed changes in dolphin behavior due to environmental shifts are concerning. Research has shown that some dolphin species are altering their migration patterns and foraging strategies in response to changing ocean conditions. These behavioral adaptations may not always be sufficient to ensure their survival, particularly for vulnerable species such as Hector’s dolphins.
Addressing the challenges posed by climate change requires a multifaceted approach. Conservation organizations and researchers are advocating for stronger policies aimed at mitigating climate change and protecting marine habitats. Collaborative efforts between governments, NGOs, and local communities are essential to develop strategies that promote resilience in dolphin populations and their ecosystems.
The Role of Wildlife Experiences in Conservation
Wildlife experiences, such as dolphin watching tours, can play a significant role in raising awareness about the challenges faced by dolphin populations. These experiences not only provide tourists with the opportunity to observe dolphins in their natural habitats but also educate them about the importance of conservation efforts. By fostering a deeper appreciation for these marine mammals, wildlife experiences can motivate individuals to become advocates for dolphin conservation.
Dolphin watching tours are a popular activity in New Zealand, attracting thousands of tourists each year. These tours often emphasize responsible wildlife viewing practices, encouraging participants to respect the dolphins and their habitats. Many operators are committed to sustainable practices that prioritize the well-being of the dolphins and minimize environmental impact. This commitment not only enhances the experience for tourists but also contributes to the overall conservation of dolphin populations.
Moreover, a portion of the revenue generated from dolphin tourism is often reinvested into conservation initiatives. This financial support can help fund research, habitat restoration projects, and community education programs focused on dolphin conservation. By participating in wildlife experiences, tourists can contribute to the protection of these magnificent creatures and their coastal habitats.
In conclusion, the challenges faced by dolphin populations in New Zealand’s coastal areas are multifaceted and require concerted efforts from various stakeholders. Habitat loss, fishing practices, and climate change all pose significant threats to these marine mammals. However, through community involvement, responsible tourism, and innovative conservation strategies, there is hope for the future of dolphin populations. By raising awareness and fostering a culture of conservation, we can work together to protect our coastal treasures and ensure the survival of dolphins for generations to come.
Success Stories and Future Directions
Successful Conservation Case Studies
In recent years, New Zealand has witnessed a number of successful conservation initiatives aimed at protecting dolphin populations, particularly in coastal areas. One notable success story is the increase in Hector’s dolphin populations in the waters around Banks Peninsula. Thanks to the collaborative efforts of the Department of Conservation (DOC), local communities, and environmental organizations, protective measures have been implemented that have led to a significant rise in the number of these endangered dolphins. According to recent surveys, the population of Hector’s dolphins in this region has increased by approximately 30% over the past decade. This remarkable recovery can be attributed to stricter fishing regulations, habitat restoration projects, and increased public awareness regarding the threats faced by these marine mammals.
Another inspiring example is the success of the Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) established along the coast of Fiordland. These MPAs serve as safe havens for various marine species, including the string of dolphins that frequent the area. The establishment of these protected zones has not only enhanced the biodiversity of marine life but has also facilitated the recovery of local dolphin populations. Observations indicate that dolphins are now more frequently sighted in these areas, engaging in social behaviors and hunting activities that were previously diminished due to human interference.
Furthermore, the success of community-led initiatives, such as the Kaikōura Whale Watch, has proven instrumental in promoting responsible wildlife experiences. By integrating conservation efforts with tourism, these initiatives have raised awareness about the importance of protecting marine ecosystems while providing economic benefits to local communities. Tourists are educated on the significance of dolphins in the ecosystem, and strict guidelines ensure that interactions with these animals are conducted in a manner that minimizes disturbance.
Innovative Solutions and Technologies
As conservation challenges evolve, so too do the strategies employed to safeguard dolphin populations. Innovative technologies are playing a pivotal role in monitoring dolphin behavior and habitats, providing researchers and conservationists with critical data to inform their efforts. One such technology is drone monitoring, which allows for aerial surveys of dolphin populations without disturbing their natural behaviors. Drones equipped with high-resolution cameras can capture detailed images and videos, enabling researchers to assess population dynamics and habitat use more effectively.
Acoustic monitoring is another groundbreaking method that has gained traction in dolphin conservation. By deploying underwater microphones, researchers can record the vocalizations of dolphins, helping to identify their presence and monitor their movements in real-time. This technology is particularly beneficial for understanding the communication patterns of string of dolphins, which rely heavily on sound for social interactions and navigation. The data collected through acoustic monitoring can inform conservation strategies, allowing for targeted interventions in areas where dolphin populations are at risk.
Community-led initiatives have also embraced technology to enhance conservation efforts. For example, the development of mobile applications that educate users about local marine life and promote responsible wildlife experiences has gained popularity. These apps often include features that allow users to report dolphin sightings, contributing valuable data to ongoing research efforts. By engaging the public in conservation, these initiatives foster a sense of stewardship and encourage responsible behavior among tourists and locals alike.
The Role of Policy in Future Conservation Efforts
Effective policy is crucial for the long-term conservation of dolphin populations in New Zealand. Ongoing discussions surrounding policy changes aim to provide stronger protections for marine mammals and their habitats. Advocates are calling for the expansion of Marine Protected Areas and the implementation of stricter regulations on fishing practices that contribute to bycatch, particularly for vulnerable species like Hector’s dolphins.
One significant policy development is the proposed update to the Marine Mammals Protection Act, which has been in place since 1978. Stakeholders are advocating for more comprehensive measures that address the current threats faced by dolphin populations, such as climate change and habitat loss. These updates would not only enhance protections for dolphins but also ensure that conservation efforts are adaptive and responsive to emerging challenges.
Community involvement in policy advocacy is also gaining momentum. Local organizations and citizen groups are mobilizing to raise awareness about the importance of dolphin conservation and to push for policy changes that reflect the needs of both marine life and coastal communities. By fostering a collaborative approach between government agencies, researchers, and local stakeholders, New Zealand can develop a robust framework for dolphin conservation that prioritizes ecological integrity and sustainable practices.
Looking ahead, it is essential for policymakers to consider the interconnectedness of marine ecosystems. Healthy dolphin populations are indicators of overall marine health, and their conservation contributes to the resilience of coastal environments. By prioritizing policies that support the conservation of dolphins and their habitats, New Zealand can ensure that future generations will continue to experience the wonder of these magnificent creatures.
Conclusion
The conservation of dolphin populations in New Zealand’s coastal areas is a multifaceted endeavor that requires the collaboration of various stakeholders, innovative technologies, and effective policies. With successful case studies demonstrating the positive impact of conservation efforts, there is hope for the future of these marine mammals. The commitment to protecting dolphins, coupled with community involvement and advancements in technology, paves the way for sustainable practices that benefit both wildlife and local economies.
As we look to the future, it is imperative that we continue to advocate for stronger protections and engage in responsible wildlife experiences. By supporting conservation organizations, participating in community initiatives, and promoting awareness about the challenges faced by dolphins, we can all play a role in safeguarding New Zealand’s coastal treasures. Together, we can ensure that the string of dolphins that grace our waters remains a vibrant part of our marine ecosystems for generations to come.
Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)
What are the main conservation efforts aimed at protecting dolphin populations in coastal areas?
The primary conservation efforts for dolphin populations in coastal areas include the establishment of marine protected areas (MPAs), which restrict human activities that could harm these marine mammals. Additionally, organizations work on habitat restoration, pollution control, and implementing regulations to limit fishing practices that inadvertently capture dolphins. Public awareness campaigns are also vital in educating communities about the importance of dolphin conservation and encouraging responsible tourism practices that do not disturb their natural habitats.
What challenges do dolphins face due to human activities in coastal regions?
Dolphins face numerous challenges due to human activities, such as habitat degradation from coastal development, pollution from industrial runoff, and noise pollution from shipping and recreational boating. Overfishing and bycatch are significant threats, leading to food scarcity and accidental entanglement in fishing gear. These challenges can severely impact dolphin populations, making it crucial to address them through effective management and conservation strategies.
How does climate change affect dolphin populations in coastal areas?
Climate change poses a significant threat to dolphin populations by altering their habitats and affecting the availability of prey. Rising sea temperatures can lead to shifts in fish populations, impacting dolphins’ food sources. Additionally, changes in sea level can destroy coastal habitats that dolphins rely on for breeding and nursing. Increased frequency and intensity of storms can also disrupt their habitats, further challenging their survival.
What role do local communities play in dolphin conservation?
Local communities play a crucial role in dolphin conservation by participating in conservation programs and advocating for sustainable practices. Engaging residents in monitoring dolphin populations and reporting illegal activities can enhance conservation efforts. Furthermore, communities that rely on eco-tourism can benefit economically from healthy dolphin populations, creating a vested interest in preserving their habitats and promoting responsible behavior towards these marine mammals.
Are there any successful examples of dolphin conservation programs?
Yes, there are several successful examples of dolphin conservation programs worldwide. For instance, the establishment of the Farasan Islands Marine Protected Area in Saudi Arabia has led to a resurgence of local dolphin populations by restricting fishing and industrial activities in critical habitats. Similarly, the Dolphin Conservation Society has implemented community-driven initiatives in various coastal regions, successfully raising awareness and reducing threats to dolphins through education and sustainable tourism practices.
What can individuals do to help dolphin conservation efforts?
Individuals can contribute to dolphin conservation efforts in several ways. Supporting organizations that focus on marine conservation, participating in beach clean-ups, and reducing plastic use can help minimize ocean pollution. Additionally, choosing responsible wildlife tourism operators that prioritize dolphin welfare and educating others about the importance of protecting these marine mammals can create a positive impact. By making informed choices and advocating for sustainable practices, individuals can play a vital part in ensuring the survival of dolphin populations in coastal areas.
References
- Dolphins and Whales – WWF – A comprehensive overview of dolphin species, their habitats, and conservation efforts.
- Dolphins – National Geographic – Insightful articles about dolphin behavior, habitats, and the challenges they face.
- Dolphins – MarineBio Conservation Society – Detailed information on different dolphin species, their ecological importance, and conservation issues.
- Dolphins and Whales – NOAA – Information on marine mammals, including conservation initiatives and challenges.
- All About Dolphins – SeaWorld – Educational resources about dolphins, their habitats, and conservation challenges.
- Dolphin Conservation – Dolphin Research Center – Focused on research and conservation efforts specific to dolphin populations.
- My Garden – A resource for garden enthusiasts, including tips on creating wildlife-friendly spaces that can support local marine ecosystems.